EXTRACTION OF IRON

            The following raw materials are involved in manufacturing of iron:

ØIron ores (magnetite, hematite) – iron oxides with earth impurities;

ØCoke, which is both reducing agent and fuel, providing heat for melting the metal and slag.

ØCoke is produced from coking coals by heating them away from air.

ØLimestone – calcium silicate fluxes, forming a fluid slag for removal gangue from the ore.

ØIron is produced in a blast furnace, schematically shown in the picture. 

Blast furnace:-

ØIt the shaft-type furnace consisting of a steel shell lined with refractory bricks.

ØThe top of the furnace is equipped with the bell-like or other        system, providing correct charging and distribution of the raw   materials (ore, coke, limestone). 

ØAir heated to 2200°F (1200°C) is blown through the tuyeres at the bottom.

ØOxigencontaining in air reacts with the coke, producing carbon monoxide:

Ø2C + O2= 2CO

ØHot gases pass up through the descending materials, causing reduction of the iron oxides to iron according to the follwing reactions:

Ø3Fe2O3 + CO = 2Fe3O4 + CO2

ØFe3O4 + CO = 3FeO + CO2

ØFeO + CO = Fe + CO2

ØIron in form of a spongy mass moves down and its temperature reaches the melting point at the bottom regions of the furnace where it melts and accumulates.

ØThe gangue, ash and other fractions of ore and coke are mixed by fluxes, formig slag which is capable to absorb sulphure and other impurities.

ØThe furnace is periodically tapped andthe melt (pig iron) is poured into ladles, which are transferred to steel making furnaces.

ØPig iron usually contains 3-4% of carbon, 2-4% of silicon, 1-2% of manganese and 1-1.2% of phosphorous.

METALLURGY

                                                                  IRON MAKING
INTRODUCTION:-
          1. metallurgy:-
                          •The science that deals with procedures used in       extracting metals from their ores, purifying, alloying and fabrication   of metals, and creating useful objects from metals.

                      •The field of metallurgy may be divided into process metallurgy (production metallurgy, extractive metallurgy) and physical metallurgy. In this system metal processing is considered to be a part of process metallurgy and the mechanical behavior of metals a part of physical metallurgy.

Process metallurgy,

ØThe science and technology used in the production of metals, employs some of the same unit operations and unit processes as chemical engineering. 

ØThese operations and processes are carried out with ores, concentrates, scrap metals, fuels, fluxes, slags, solvents, and electrolytes.

ØDifferent metals require different combinations of operations and processes, but typically the production of a metal involves two major steps.The first is the production of an impure metal from ore minerals, commonly oxides or sulfides, and the second is the refining of the reduced impure metal, for example, by selective oxidation of impurities or by electrolysis.

•Extractive metallurgy

Øis the study of the processes used in the separation and concentration (benefaction) of raw materials.

ØIn extractive metallurgy, benefication is any process which removes the gangue minerals from ore to produce a higher grade product (concentrate), and a waste stream (tailings).

ØThe field is an applied science, covering all aspects of the physical and chemical processes used to produce mineral-containing and metallic materials, sometimes for direct use as a finished product, but more often in a form that requires further physical processing which is generally the subject of physical metallurgy, ceramics, and other disciplines within the broad field of materials science.

•Physical metallurgy

 investigates the effects of composition and treatment on the structure of metals and the relations of the structure to the properties of metals.

•Physical metallurgy is also concerned with the engineering applications of scientific principles to the fabrication, mechanical treatment, heat treatment, and service behavior of metals.

ELECTROMETALLURGY

                         •Electrometallurgy involves metallurgical processes that take place in some form of electrolytic cell.

•The most common types of electrometallurgical processes are electrowinning and electro-refining.

•Electrowinning is an electrolysis process used to recover metals in aqueous solution, usually as the result of an ore having undergone one or more hydrometallurgical processes.

•The metal of interest is plated onto the cathode, while the anode is an inert electrical conductor. Electro-refining is used to dissolve an impure metallic anode (typically from a smelting process) and produce a high purity cathode.

•Fused salt electrolysis is another electrometallurgical process whereby the valuable metal has been dissolved into a molten salt which acts as the electrolyte, and the valuable metal collects on the cathode of the cell.

•The fused salt electrolysis process is conducted at temperatures sufficient to keep both the electrolyte and the metal being produced in the molten state. The scope of electrometallurgy has significant overlap with the areas of hydrometallurgy and (in the case of fused salt electrolysis) pyrometallurgy. Additionally, electrochemical phenomena play a considerable role in many mineral processing and hydrometallurgical processes.

Annealing

Annealing, in metallurgy and materials science, is a heat treatment wherein a material is altered, causing changes in its properties such as strength and hardness. It is a process that produces conditions by heating to above the critical temperature, maintaining a suitable temperature, and then cooling. Annealing is used to induce ductility, soften material, relieve internal stresses, refine the structure by making it homogeneous, and improve cold working properties.

In the cases of copper, steel, silver, and brass, this process is performed by substantially heating the material (generally until glowing) for a while and allowing it to cool. Unlike ferrous metals—which must be cooled slowly to anneal—copper, silver and brass can be cooled slowly in air or quickly by quenching in water. In this fashion the metal is softened and prepared for further work such as shaping, stamping, or forming.

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A discussion on HEAT TREATMENT

                                                    HEAT TREATMENT

Heat treating is a group of industrial and metalworking processes used to alter the physical, and sometimes chemical, properties of a material. The most common application is metallurgical. Heat treatments are also used in the manufacture of many other materials, such as glass. Heat treatment involves the use of heating or chilling, normally to extreme temperatures, to achieve a desired result such as hardening or softening of a material. Heat treatment techniques include annealing, case hardening, precipitation strengthening, tempering and quenching. It is noteworthy that while the term heat treatmentapplies only to processes where the heating and cooling are done for the specific purpose of altering properties intentionally, heating and cooling often occur incidentally during other manufacturing processes such as hot forming or welding.

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Austempering

                                                          Austempering
 Austempering is an isothermal heat treatment (tempering) that is applied to ferrous metals, most notably steel and ductile iron. In steel it produces a lower bainite microstructure whereas in cast irons it produces a structure of acicular ferrite and high carbon, stabilized austenite known as ausferrite. It is primarily used to improve mechanical properties. Austempering is defined by both the process and the resultant microstructure . Typical austempering process parameters applied to an unsuitable material will not result in the formation of bainite or ausferrite and thusly the final product will not be called austempered. Both microstructures may also be produced via other methods. For example, they may be produced as-cast or air cooled with the proper alloy content. These materials are also not referred to as austempered.
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Special types of heat treatments

                                                       

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A detailed discussion on heat treatment of 'c' steel

                                             Heat treating is a group of industrial and metalworking processes used to alter the physical, and sometimes chemical, properties of a material. The most common application is metallurgical. Heat treatments are also used in the manufacture of many other materials, such as glass. Heat treatment involves the use of heating or chilling, normally to extreme temperatures, to achieve a desired result such as hardening or softening of a material. Heat treatment techniques include annealing, case hardening, precipitation strengthening, tempering and quenching. It is noteworthy that while the term heat treatmentapplies only to processes where the heating and cooling are done for the specific purpose of altering properties intentionally, heating and cooling often occur incidentally during other manufacturing processes such as hot forming or welding.
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Heat_Treatment_of_Low_Carbon_Steel

                                                   Heat_Treatment_of_Low_Carbon_Steel

Heat treating is a group of industrial and metalworking processes used to alter the physical, and sometimes chemical, properties of a material. The most common application is metallurgical. Heat treatments are also used in the manufacture of many other materials, such as glass. Heat treatment involves the use of heating or chilling, normally to extreme temperatures, to achieve a desired result such as hardening or softening of a material. Heat treatment techniques include annealing, case hardening, precipitation strengthening, tempering and quenching. It is noteworthy that while the term heat treatmentapplies only to processes where the heating and cooling are done for the specific purpose of altering properties intentionally, heating and cooling often occur incidentally during other manufacturing processes such as hot forming or welding.

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Transformer Design

       TRANSFORMER DESIGN :-
                      A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another through inductively coupled conductors—the transformer's coils. A varying current in the first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core and thus a varying magnetic field through the secondarywinding. This varying magnetic field induces a varying electromotive force (EMF), or "voltage", in the secondary winding. This effect is called inductive coupling.

If a load is connected to the secondary, current will flow in the secondary winding, and electrical energy will be transferred from the primary circuit through the transformer to the load. In an ideal transformer, the induced voltage in the secondary winding (V_s) is in proportion to the primary voltage (V_p) and is given by the ratio of the number of turns in the secondary (N_s) to the number of turns in the primary (N_p) as follows:

By appropriate selection of the ratio of turns, a transformer thus enables an alternating current (AC) voltage to be "stepped up" by making N_s greater than N_p, or "stepped down" by making N_s less than N_p.

                                                  
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NANO MATERIALS

                                                 NANO MATERIALS
                                                   &
                                 SMART MATERIALS

Nanomaterials is a field that takes a material science -based approach to nano technology  . It studies materials with morphological features on the nanoscale , and especially those that have special properties stemming from their nanoscale dimensions. Nanoscale is usually defined as smaller than a one tenth of a micrometer in at least one dimension,though this term is sometimes also used for materials smaller than one micrometer.

                                                                      or

A natural, incidental or manufactured material containing particles, in an unbound state or as an aggregate or as an agglomerate and where, for 50% or more of the particles in the number size distribution, one or more external dimensions is in the size range 1 nm – 100 nm. In specific cases and where warranted by concerns for the environment, health, safety or competitiveness the number size distribution threshold of 50% may be replaced by a threshold between 1 and 50%.

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WELDING

                                welding

Welding is a fabrication or sculptural process that joins materials, usually metals or thermoplastics, by causing coalescence. This is often done by meltingthe workpieces and adding a filler material to form a pool of molten material (the weld pool) that cools to become a strong joint, with pressure sometimes used in conjunction with heat, or by itself, to produce the weld. This is in contrast with soldering and brazing, which involve melting a lower-melting-point material between the workpieces to form a bond between them, without melting the workpieces.

Many different energy sources can be used for welding, including a gas flame, an electric arc, a laser, an electron beam, friction, and ultrasound. While often an industrial process, welding may be performed in many different environments, including open air, under water and in outer space. Welding is a potentially hazardous undertaking and precautions are required to avoid burns, electric shock, vision damage, inhalation of poisonous gases and fumes, and exposure tointense ultraviolet radiation.

Until the end of the 19th century, the only welding process was forge welding, which blacksmiths had used for centuries to join iron and steel by heating and hammering. Arc welding and oxyfuel welding were among the first processes to develop late in the century, and electric resistance welding followed soon after. Welding technology advanced quickly during the early 20th century as World War I and World War II drove the demand for reliable and inexpensive joining methods. Following the wars, several modern welding techniques were developed, including manual methods like shielded metal arc welding, now one of the most popular welding methods, as well as semi-automatic and automatic processes such as gas metal arc welding, submerged arc welding, flux-cored arc welding and electroslag welding. Developments continued with the invention of laser beam welding, electron beam welding, electromagnetic pulse weldingand friction stir welding in the latter half of the century. Today, the science continues to advance. Robot welding is commonplace in industrial settings, and researchers continue to develop new welding methods and gain greater understanding of weld quality and properties.

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ROLLING&FORGING

ROLLING & forging


Forging is a manufacturing process involving the shaping of metal using localized compressive forces. Forging is often classified according to the temperature at which it is performed: '"cold," "warm," or "hot" forging. Forged parts can range in weight from less than a kilogram to 580 metric tons.[1][2] Forged parts usually require further processing to achieve a finished par


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FORGING

FORGING


Forging is a manufacturing process involving the shaping of metal using localized compressive forces. Forging is often classified according to the temperature at which it is performed: '"cold," "warm," or "hot" forging. Forged parts can range in weight from less than a kilogram to 580 metric tons.Forged parts usually require further processing to achieve a finished product.




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ROLLING

ROLLING PROCESS

                                                                                                             Rolling is a combination of rotation (of a radially symmetric object) and translation of that object with respect to a surface (either one or the other moves), such that the two are in contact with each other without sliding.
ROLLING is a process of forming the metals










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CASTING

CASTING PROCESS

     




Casting is a manufacturing process by which a liquid material is usually poured into a mold, which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify. The solidified part is also known as a casting, which is ejected or broken out of the mold to complete the process. Casting materials are usually metals or various cold setting materials that cure after mixing two or more components together; examples are epoxy, concrete, plaster and clay. Casting is most often used for making complex shapes that would be otherwise difficult or uneconomical to make by other methods.^[1]



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CASTING PROCESSES

CASTING process

                               



 CASTING IS   is a manufacturing process by which a liquid material is usually poured into a mold, which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify. The solidified part is also known as a casting, which is ejected or broken out of the mold to complete the process. Casting materials are usually metals or various cold setting materials that cure after mixing two or more components together; examples are epoxy, concrete, plaster and clay. Casting is most often used for making complex shapes that would be otherwise difficult or uneconomical to make by other methods.[1]

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FORGING

FORGING

                 
 (Forging is a manufacturing process involving the shaping of metal using localized compressive forces. Forging is often classified according to the temperature at which it is performed: '"cold," "warm," or "hot" forging. Forged parts can range in weight from less than a kilogram to 580 metric tons.[1][2]Forged parts usually require further processing to achieve a finished part.)

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WELDING DEFECTS:

      A welding defect is any flaw that compromises the usefulness of the finished weldment.
According to the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) welding defect causes are broken down into the following percentages: 41% poor process conditions, 32% operator error, 12% wrong technique, 10% incorrect consumables, and 5% bad weld grooves.
                             
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Welding has many types :-
1.Gas Welding
2.Arc Welding
3.Resistance welding
4.soldering
5.Brazing
6.MIG Welding
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